March 8, 2023: “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang” by Noelle Heineman
Who are the Uyghurs:
The Uyghurs are a Muslim minority ethnic group living mainly in the Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) in the northwest corner of the People’s Republic of China (PRC).[i] The Uyghurs speak their own language, which resembles other Turkish languages and practice moderate Sunni Islam. XUAR is a provincial-level administrative region comprising almost a sixth of China’s total land area and borders eight countries.[ii]
For most of its documented history, the Xinjiang region has been under the political control and influence of the Chinese, Mongols, and Russians, with limited Turkish or Uyghur rule periods. Uyghurs, along with other Muslim minority ethnic groups in southern Xinjiang, have previously mobilized political opposition and established two semi-autonomous East Turkestan Republics throughout the 1930s and 1940s, as many Uyghurs view the region as an extension of East Turkestan.[iii] However, in 1949, the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) came to power and occupied the Xinjiang region.[iv] Since its occupation, it has increased its control over the region and the Uyghur community through various political and religious repression policies. Repression policies have included the forced removal of women’s face veils, required shaving of men’s beards, and the destruction of mosques as well as providing economic incentives to the country’s Han Chinese, particularly men, to move to Xinjiang and marry Uyghur women as means of forced assimilation.[v]
As repression policies have increased and the CCP doubled down on its forced assimilation efforts, bouts of violence between Uyghurs and Chinese security forces have spiked, especially between 2013 and 2015, as PRC leaders have carried out large-scale criminal arrests in Xinjiang and intensified security measures aimed at combating what the PRC considers “terrorism, separatism, and extremism.”[vi] One of the main security measures that the PRC has taken, which has recently garnered international and humanitarian attention, is the establishment of an estimated 380 re-education camps in Xinjiang, where almost 2 million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities have been arbitrarily detained and where numerous human rights abuses have been committed.[vii]
Mass Detention of Uyghurs and Other Minorities in Xinjiang:
Since 2017, an estimated 2 million Uyghurs and other Muslim minorities, including ethnic Kazakhs and Uzbeks, have been arbitrarily detained in reeducation camps in Xinjiang.[viii] PRC officials have claimed that these “facilities” are vocational education and training centers, and forced detentions have not occurred.[ix] While the information on what exactly happens in these reeducation camps is limited, based on reports and interviews from previously detained individuals, those arrested are subjected to food deprivation, psychological pressure, sexual abuse, medical neglect, torture, forced labor, and forced sterilization.[x] Furthermore, reports have claimed that detainees were obligated to pledge their loyalty to the CCP, learn Mandarin, and abandon their Islamic faith. Additionally, the PRC has reportedly placed nearly a half a million Uyghur and religious minority children into state-run boarding schools and has banned the use of Uyghur and non-Mandarin languages in all schools in Xinjiang.[xi]
The PRC’s re-education efforts have been underway in Xinjiang since 2014, but efforts were drastically expanded in 2017 when President Xi Jinping initiated policies of religious Sinicization.[xii] Sinicization is the process of making something more Chinese or bringing something under Chinese influence. Xi initiated these Sinicization policies as means of revitalizing Chinese nationalism.[xiii] Xi and the CCP have for decades viewed the Uyghurs as well as other religious minorities as corrupting threats to the PRC. Since 2017, there has been substantial evidence from satellite imagery of the construction of new re-education camps and the expansion of current detention centers for the purpose of mass internment. According to satellite imagery, between April 2017 and August 2018, around 39 known re-education camps in Xinjiang tripled in size and covered a total area equivalent to 140 soccer fields.[xiv] The increase of 20 billion yuan in security-related facilities in Xinjiang also indicates the expansion and mass use of re-education camps.[xv] After the discovery of the re-education camps, PRC leadership faced significant pressure from the international community to shut down and release all arbitrarily detained people. After repeated denials of the camp’s existence, in 2019, PRC leadership in Xinjiang announced that all detainees had “graduated” and the centers were closed. However, according to satellite imagery, a suspected 380 facilities are still operational, with many of these facilities receiving new high-security upgrades.[xvi]
Furthermore, while reports indicate that some of the detainees were released after the 2019 announcement of “graduation,” many others were forced into labor in factories, and the rest were prosecuted as criminals or terrorists.[xvii] The formal justice system in Xinjiang has been used as a tool for the government to detain and imprison Uyghurs and other religious minorities whom the government views as extremists or terrorists. Additionally, according to reports, those released were done so under the condition that they renounced their Islamic beliefs and customs. In 2022 UN Human Rights Watch reported that nearly half of a million people had been prosecuted in Xinjiang since 2017.[xviii]
Those detained were generally not accused of any one crime but rather held on based on their past religious, cultural, scholarly, social, and online activities that the government later deemed extremist, pre-criminal, or potentially terroristic. People were also detained if they were found to have communicated with or traveled to any of the twenty-six countries China considers sensitive, such as Turkey and Afghanistan, attended services at mosques, or had more than three children.[xix] None of the detainees in these re-education camps received any legal avenues to challenge their detentions. In many cases, Uyghurs and other religious minorities in China have been detained and labeled as extremists simply for practicing their religion.
What do Chinese Officials say about the Camps:
As previously stated above, PRC officials have denied the existence of re-education camps and only after significant international pressure recognized these facilities as vocational education and training centers. Members of the CCP have claimed that these re-education centers have two primary purposes.[xx] One is to teach Mandarin, Chinese laws, and vocational skills. Two, to prevent citizens from becoming influenced by extremist ideas and to “nip activism in the bud.”[xxi] CCP officials have also claimed that these camps have prevented violence and potential terroristic activities and state that the fact that there have been no terrorist attacks since 2016 is proof.
As international criticism of China’s human rights abuses has grown, the CCP has increasingly worked to discredit any reports on Xinjiang and the Uyghurs through the dissemination of disinformation, harassment of activists, and repeated denial. In addition, the CCP has claimed that the U.S. and other western nations have promoted “anti-China” narratives.[xxii]
Targeting of Uyghurs in Xinjiang:
The forced detainment and imprisonment of Uyghurs and other religious minorities is part of the CCP and President Xi Jinping’s larger policies and initiatives of Sinicization aimed at forcefully assimilating Uyghurs into PRC society. Xi and the CCP have argued that the policies and initiatives of Sinicization are meant to “actively guide religions to adopt Chinese socialist society.”[xxiii] The CCP has claimed concerns about extremist and separatist ideology among Uyghurs and has justified the internment of these people to secure territorial integrity, the government, and the people. The Uyghurs and other religious minorities, such as Christians and Tibetan Buddhists, have been consistently targeted as the CCP fears the influence, particularly foreign influence, that religions can have and the separatism that can spur.[xxiv] Therefore, the CCP has instituted restrictive religious policies as a means to mitigate the influence of religions and clamp down on minority communities through the labeling of religious practices as prone to terrorism.
As tensions and violence in Xinjiang over religious repression policies have intensified over the past decades, the CCP has blamed many outbreaks of violence and some attacks on Xinjiang security forces on the East Turkestan Islamic Movement (ETIM). ETIM is a separatist movement founded by Uyghur militants in the 2000s.[xxv] Following the events of the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the U.S., the CCP began justifying intensified actions taken towards Uyghurs in Xinjiang as taking part in the global war on terror.[xxvi]
The 2009 outbreak of rioting in the Xinjiang capital Ürümqi, where Uyghurs protested against the state-incentivized migration of Han Chinese and religious repression policies, resulted in the death of nearly two hundred people.[xxvii] The 2009 riots marked a turning point in the CCP’s stance towards the Uyghurs as they viewed all Uyghurs as potential terrorists or sympathizers. Then, after Xi and CCP’s policies of Sinicization were passed in 2017, further religious restrictions were placed on Uyghurs.
A primary driving force behind the re-education camps in Xinjiang is the CCP party member Chen Quanguo, who was infamously involved in the religious crackdowns and state control over Buddhist monasteries in Tibet. Quanguo moved to Xinjiang in 2016 and has been instrumental in implementing re-education centers and intensified security measures in the region.[xxviii]
Economic Factors:
The Xinjiang region is rich in resources as the region produces over 80% of China’s cotton and has the largest natural gas and coal reserves in China.[xxix] Xinjiang is a critical node for China’s Belt and Road Initiative, which is a massive infrastructure and economic project extending from Central Asia to Europe. In maintaining this infrastructure and economic project, the CCP aims to eradicate any separatist ideology from Xinjiang as it continues to develop the region as a massive port for the initiative as well as a hub for textiles and apparel manufacturing.[xxx] Human rights organizations have reported that many of the economic benefits that are derived from resource extraction in Xinjiang are disproportionately enjoyed by Han Chinese in the region, while Uyghurs and other religious minorities are increasingly marginalized.[xxxi]
CCP policies and initiatives in Xinjiang have increasingly pressured Uyghurs to accept factory positions in textile, agricultural, consumer electronics, apparel, and other labor-intensive industries in Xinjiang and other provinces.[xxxii] Those that refuse employment with these industries commonly face detention, and those already in detention centers face physical abuse. Many industries utilizing Uyghur forced labor have been tied to global supply chains, including companies such as Apple, Nike, Amazon, Costco, Microsoft, Calvin Klein, and many others.[xxxiii] However, recent legislation in the U.S. and other western nations has begun restricting companies’ use of forced labor in Xinjiang.
Mass Surveillance:
Several Human Rights Watch reports have cited that the Xinjiang region, like many other provinces in China, has turned into a surveillance state. The CCP has increasingly invested in and utilizes cutting-edge technology for monitoring its residents. The CCP has implemented a grid management surveillance system that splits villages and cities into squares of around 500 people.[xxxiv] These squares are then overseen by police stations in each one that consistently monitor residents by scanning their identifications cars, scanning their fingerprints, and searching their phones. These surveillance systems were introduced in Xinjiang by CCP member Chen Quanguo to monitor all activities and movements of Xinjiang residents.[xxxv]
In Xinjiang cities such as Kashgar, police checkpoints are placed every one-hundred yards, where facial recognition technology consistently scans those entering and leaving the premises. Furthermore, the government collects and stores all resident’s biometric data. Much of this biometric data in Xinjiang has been collected through required programs that are advertised as “Physicals for All.”[xxxvi] All biometric data, along with other pertinent information, is placed into a massive database that is used to create a so-called suspicious person list. In 2019, leaked classified Chinese documents revealed that more than fifteen thousand Xinjiang residents had been detained in June 2017 after the biometric database flagged these individuals to the suspicious person list.[xxxvii]
Global Response:
Many western nations have condemned China’s arbitrary detention of Uyghurs and other religious minorities in Xinjiang. The United Nations Human Rights Office has consistently pushed China to release those detained and disclose the location of those the government has disappeared. The UN Human Rights Office has claimed that what China has done in Xinjiang constitutes crimes against humanity, while other western nations, such as the U.S., have described such actions as cultural genocide.[xxxviii] Many western countries and the European Union have taken a stance against China’s treatment of Uyghurs and other religious minorities by sanctioning Chinese officials tied to rights abuses since 2017.
Furthermore, many nations have also placed manufacturing and supply chain restrictions to address the forced labor of Uyghurs. The U.S. passed the Uyghur Forced Labor Prevention Act in 2021, which banned all imports from Xinjiang to prevent the funding of forced labor.[xxxix] The United Kingdom similarly passed laws that require U.K. businesses to ensure that their supply chains do not utilize forced labor. [xl]Additionally, the European Parliament passed legislation in 2022 that pressures EU nations to ban all imports that have been linked to forced labor in Xinjiang.
However, while many western nations have moved to address human rights abuses in Xinjiang, many of China’s partners have been largely silent on the issues in western China. Many of China’s partners, particularly central Asian nations where Islam is the primary religion, have prioritized their economic ties and strategic relationships with China over the human rights abuses committed. In June 2022, at the 50th session of the Human Rights Council, Cuba delivered a joint statement on behalf of 69 countries that called for the UN Human Rights Chief to stop pursuing China under human rights abuses by stating Xinjiang-related issues are the internal affairs of China and should not be the concern of the international community.[xli] Additionally, the joint statement also called the U.S. and other western nations out for politicizing the issue of human rights. Additionally, Muslim-majority nations like Saudi Arabia and Pakistan were among the 69 signatories of the joint statement, and these nations have also been highly criticized for condoning abuses.[xlii]
Conclusion:
Since the CCP occupation of the Xinjiang Region, the Chinese government has consistently sought to eliminate Uygur culture and society in the region and eliminate other religious minorities throughout the country. For many decades, the CCP has feared the influence, particularly foreign influence, that comes with divergent religious groups in China. The CCP also fears the effects of separatist ideology on PRC society as it weakens government control over society. Through various religious repression policies and initiatives, the CCP has made a concerted effort to Sinicize the Xinjiang region. The recent Sinicization efforts have resulted in the mass internment and imprisonment of over 2 million Uyghurs and other religious minorities in Xinjiang. Horrific descriptions of the activities that occur in these re-education centers have reached western nations and have resulted in increased political and economic pressures placed on China and its officials tied to human rights abuses in Xinjiang. While claims have been made that argue that China is free to do what it wishes within its own boarders, more should be done to address the human rights abuses committed against the Uyghurs. Endnote
[i] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[ii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[iii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[iv] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 6.
[v] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 8.
[vi] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[vii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 2.
[viii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 2.
[ix] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 2.
[x] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Human Rights”. Congressional Research Service. IF12265. January 6, 2023.
[xi] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xii] Anand, A. (2022). Repression of Uyghur Muslims and the Freedom of Religious Beliefs in China. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 8(1), 29.
[xiii] Anand, A. (2022). Repression of Uyghur Muslims and the Freedom of Religious Beliefs in China. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 8(1), 29.
[xiv] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 3.
[xv] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 3.
[xvi] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 3.
[xvii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 3.
[xviii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 4.
[xix] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 5.
[xx] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 6.
[xxi] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 6.
[xxii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 3.
[xxiii] Anand, A. (2022). Repression of Uyghur Muslims and the Freedom of Religious Beliefs in China. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 8(1), 28.
[xxiv] Anand, A. (2022). Repression of Uyghur Muslims and the Freedom of Religious Beliefs in China. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 8(1), 28.
[xxv] Anand, A. (2022). Repression of Uyghur Muslims and the Freedom of Religious Beliefs in China. Journal of Social Inclusion Studies, 8(1), 28.
[xxvi] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 7.
[xxvii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Human Rights”. Congressional Research Service. IF12265. January 6, 2023.
[xxviii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xxix] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xxx] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xxxi] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 8.
[xxxii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xxxiii] Jacob Zinkula, “23 Major Brands Suspected of Illegally Sourcing Products Made by Forced Labor in China,” Business Insider (2022).
[xxxiv] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 9.
[xxxv] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 9.
[xxxvi] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 9.
[xxxvii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 9.
[xxxviii] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Human Rights”. Congressional Research Service. IF12265. January 6, 2023.
[xxxix] Lum, Thomas and Michael Weber. “China Primer: Uyghurs”. Congressional Research Service. IF10281. January 6, 2023.
[xl] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 12.
[xli] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 12.
[xlii] Lindsay Maizland, “China’s Repression of Uyghurs in Xinjiang,” Council on Foreign Relations (Council on Foreign Relations, 2022), 12.
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