Introduction

On November 11th, a faction of Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan claimed responsibility for a deadly terrorist attack in Islamabad, Pakistan, highlighting the continued presence of religious extremism within Pakistan. Over the years, experts have identified this struggle as a domestic and regional security concern, but also a source of political tension. But does Pakistan still have an extremism problem? This paper argues that Pakistan is still struggling with extremism within its borders, but the dynamics of this challenge are complex, as there are both political and militant layers that must be analyzed. 

History of Islam in Pakistan

When Pakistan was created in 1947, it had to contend with how Islam would manifest in its critical institutions as a new homeland for millions of South Asian Muslims. The country began by establishing Islam as its foundation, enshrining it in its 1973 constitution and proclaiming it as “the State religion of Pakistan.”[1] While its inclusion within the constitution highlighted Pakistan’s commitment to hold Islam as its foundation, it wasn’t until General Zia-ul-Haq’s military coup in 1977 that it pushed for a deeper integration of Islamic values in the country. His decade-long reign brought forth the “Islamization Era”, where he introduced more conservative policies more closely aligned with Islamic teachings. This era had given rise to more religiously orthodox views amongst Pakistanis, but also sectarian violence and the suppression of vulnerable populations’ rights. Though this era came to an end following President Zia-ul-Haq’s sudden death in 1988, his policies remain evident in much of Pakistan’s political and societal structures.

While Pakistan grappled with the inclusion of Islam in its governance, it also had to contend with the rise of violent extremism as an external and internal security threat. Following the September 11^th attacks and the subsequent U.S. invasion of Afghanistan in 2001, Pakistan became a major player in the Global War on Terror due to its shared borders with Afghanistan and close proximity to the Taliban. It was routinely brought up in conversations on violent extremism in the region, as it was “being considered as the epicentre of global terrorism for the foreseeable future” as well as on the threat extremist groups posed to Pakistan’s fragile domestic stability. [2] Since the proliferation of violent extremism, Pakistan continues to grapple with this threat within its borders, along with the debate over how Islam should manifest in the country.

Pakistani Politics and Islam

Islam has always played a fundamental role in politics and society, but to what degree is critical to questioning Pakistan’s struggle with extremism. To understand this, one must take a closer look at the “Islamization Era” during Zia-ul-Haq’s rule and its impact. The Hudood Ordinances were a set of laws that were part of his efforts to alter the legal system based on Islamic law by criminalizing all forms of adultery outside of marriage; however, the ordinances also created systemic legal challenges for women trying to prove sexual violence in court. Though they were ultimately revised through the passing of the Women’s Protection Bill in 2006, Pakistani women continue to advocate and push for reforms on their rights and protections, though religious groups continue to use Islam as a justification for the preservation of traditional gender roles.

The strengthening of the blasphemy laws was another major effort that has been viewed as evidence of Pakistan’s intolerance of its religious minorities. President Zia-ul-Haq had amended the laws to criminalize derogatory remarks or even any implications of disrespect against Islam; however, reports indicate that they have been used predominantly against non-Sunni minorities. As per many human rights advocates, these laws have led to “extreme violence, and in some cases the lynching of the accused by a frenzied mob.”[3] Despite its relation to sectarian violence and its repeated misuse against minorities, attempts to reform the laws have been stalled by religious groups.

President Zia-ul-Haq also pushed to integrate Islamic values into all parts of Pakistan. During his reign, he expanded Islamic influence in education by funding and expanding madrassas, or Islamic schools, across the country. Though these schools have provided millions of children of impoverished areas with religious education, a small minority of orthodox madrassas have been linked to the recruiting of militants through the propagation of fundamentalist teaching. Amid these policies, there is a lack of legal protections for religious minorities, particularly non-Sunni Muslims who have been under attack for decades. As per the United States Commission on International Religious Freedom, such targeting of religious minorities has been one of the leading causes of the notion that Pakistan is an extremist country. With all this in mind, it is imperative to understand that the integration of Islamic values into policies, as Zia-ul-Haq had intended during his rule, doesn’t insinuate that a nation is extreme. However, as these laws have continued to disproportionately harm vulnerable populations, their motive and utilization give rise to such assertions.

Looking at Pakistan’s Involvement with Militant Extremism

The rise of militant extremism has posed a serious security threat to Pakistan’s already fragile stability. Scholars have described Pakistan’s policies towards extremist groups within its borders as complex and varied, as seen in the ongoing insurgency in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir. Pakistan has been fighting an Islamist-based insurgency in its Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province and the former Federally Administered Tribal Area for over two decades. Erupting in 2004, remnants of al-Qaeda and other Islamist groups who fled across the border from Afghanistan following the U.S. invasion, later merging their groups to create the Tehrik-e-Taliban Pakistan (TTP), have been waging an insurgency in an attempt to overthrow the Pakistani government and establish an Emirate based on Sharia law. Since then, the TTP has been behind numerous terrorist attacks within Pakistan, notably the Peshawar School Massacre in 2014 and rampant attacks against non-Sunni minorities all over the country. Pakistan has made significant strides in neutralizing the TTP’s influence through a combination of conventional military operations and civilian efforts aimed at deradicalization through development initiatives. However, following the Taliban takeover of Afghanistan in 2021, there has been a resurgence in TTP operations, continuing to pose a national security risk while the government continues to devise different military and non-military initiatives to decisively defeat the TTP and their extremist influence. Despite extensive counterinsurgency operations, they still remain a significant threat to Pakistan’s security.

One cannot have a conversation about Pakistan’s proximity to extremism without discussing its involvement in the ongoing insurgency in Indian-administered Kashmir. The territorial conflict in Kashmir has been a source of bilateral hostility between India and Pakistan since 1948. However, violence escalated into a full-blown insurgency in the 1990s when militant organizations like Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammad began waging a separatist insurgency in Kashmir. Pakistan has been accused of providing logistical, financial, and arms support to these groups, though the government has denied those allegations, stating that its support is for Kashmiri self-determination. These groups have been behind some of the deadliest attacks within India, such as the 2008 Mumbai attacks, the 2001 attack on the Parliament Building, and attacks against religious minorities within Kashmir. As a result, continued allegations of Pakistan’s involvement in the ongoing insurgency have been a source of bilateral tension, especially following the Pahalgam attacks earlier this year.

Conclusion

So, does Pakistan still have an extremism problem? Many would likely answer in the affirmative that Pakistan still has an extremism problem, and it continues to pose a significant threat to domestic security. A number of Pakistan’s laws have disproportionately harmed religious minorities and women, and continue to do so today. On top of that, its difficulty in countering the ongoing insurgencies in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and Kashmir has not only threatened Pakistan’s stability but also regional security. With that being said, is there much that Pakistan can do to reverse such a shift without doing away with its Islamic values, or will it continue to grapple with extremism for the foreseeable future? There certainly are measures that can reduce the influence of extremism. Firstly, Pakistan must pass reforms on its laws that have primarily harmed women and religious minorities, as well as push for further protections for these communities. Pakistan must also re-evaluate its commitment and efforts in mitigating the threat of extremist groups within its borders, which have already made strides on this issue. At the end of 2024, the government approved the implementation of the National Prevention of Violent Extremism Policy to “prevent violent extremism in all its manifestations by addressing the drivers and root causes for extremism, promoting human rights, and social harmony…through whole-of-the-nation approach.”[4] Although implemented recently, this is a significant step towards a comprehensive strategy that addresses the root causes and drivers of extremism. Of course, only time will tell if it will be successful in suppressing the current extremist threats. However, it will take political, military, and public commitment to steer away from a path of extremism; otherwise, its influence may continue to pose a serious concern for Pakistan’s security and South Asian stability.

Work Cited

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[1] Government of Pakistan. 2012. “THE CONSTITUTION OF THE ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF PAKISTAN.” National Assembly of Pakistan.

[2] Afridi, Shahid Ahmad. “Pakistan’s Counterinsurgency: Military and Civilian Approach.” Strategic Studies 36, no. 3 (2016): Page 24.

[3] Haider, Syed F. 2023. “Pakistan at a crossroads on blasphemy.” Lowy Institute – The Interpreter.

[4] “National Prevention of Violent Extremism Policy 2024.” 2025. Government of Pakistan, National Counter Terrorism Authority (NACTA).